Development of Independence From Colonialism

Development of Independence From Colonialism Ghana was the first country in black Africa to achieve independence, on March 6, 1957. It showed the way to the rest of Africa to free themselves from the colonization which was spread everywhere on the continent. Kwame Nkrumah was the one who inspired by India’s independence came out with the Convention People’s Party (CPP) and brought imperial Britain to leave the Gold Coast (Ghana before the independence) only thanks to political means. After this victory, Kwame Nkrumah became the symbol of a generation as the anti-colonialist struggle, recognized by the most as the first real African activist victorious over the colonialism. The independence of Gold Coast had a magnitude all over the continent and was at the basis of the many nationalist actions realized afterward. After the independence of Ghana : No one doubted about the bright economic future of Ghana as it is the first cocoa exporter worldwide and was producing big quantity of gold (about one tenth of the world’s production). Ghana was also full with crops, forests and even gemstones.Finally, many in Ghana were well-educated and a quarter of Ghana ’s population was literate. Besides, Nkruhmah was becoming more and more appreciated by people thanks to the inspiration he provided to them. He got the heavy responsibility of rebuilding again this country, to unit its habitants although they shared very few things in common and still, the colonization ended up recently. Indeed, in this year, many groups still remain hostiles toward each other from the hundreds of years of wars and of slave trade. Tensions were still present as Ghana was trying to change its face. The country wasn’t stable yet, the population could have been influenced by others therefore Nkrumah decided that all the political parties whether regional or tribal oriented were forbidden in order to prevent any internal problems caused by feelings of nationalism. 1958 was a dark year for Ghana which was no longer the world’s largest cocoa supplier. Unfortunately, the country was facing an economic downturn which created a social crisis. Nkrumah’s government lost its popularity toward the mass and the rural population. The government’s response makes the situation even worse: Indeed, Nkrumah became dictatorial and took many hard measures against the manifestations and to anyone who disliked his government. While, he said once: â€Å"If we get self-government, we will transform the Gold Coast ( Ghana ) into a paradise in 10 years†[1] Strikes were considered illegal and severely punished. He implemented of a law which without trial allowed to arrest anyone suspected being against the state for five years which turned to be ten years later on. All political parties were prohibited. As a result: Nkrumah declared himself president for life; Ghana as a one-party state and finally achieved to turn his country as hell on earth for Ghana ’s workers. In 1960, Nkrumah is designated president of republic. The president had high expectancy for Ghana and started many expensive and ambitious projects without unfortunately getting profit from them. As a matter of fact, Nkrumah wanted to use the resources of Ghana to promote the industry development and the economic growth for the country. Ghana had a lot of bauxite and that could assure a good rise of the sector especially thanks to the manufacture of aluminum, by exporting worldwide. However to start these projects, the need for electricity became a necessity. As a consequence, the process of industrialization began, leading to the Volta Dam project. The project was only half successful as many others Nkrumah had run but nobody could doubt the good intentions behind them. The agricultural sector remained unheeded whereas it represents the basis for a developing country and overall for Ghana as it disposes of a lot of natural resources. As a consequence, the economy started to turn bad and Ghana contracted a debt which was increasing highly. The positive mood in the recent past years which tend to stay confident in Ghana ’s development ended and provoked a big change in the political climate. Later on, in 1962, the economic situation evolved so badly that all foreign investors and industry were in the obligation by law to invest again more than 60 percent of their gains within Ghana . The president had no choice than to force his investors as he did with the population to continue providing money to its system that no one else believed in any more. As if the fall was endless, in 1964, one year after W.E.B died; (he was the first African American who graduated at Harvard and to earn a doctorate. He was also known as an activist against racism and the segregation. After the independence of Ghana , he was invited by Nkrumah to live in Ghana ); the president Nkrumah suspended the constitution and therefore the democracy. Ghana was finally officially recognized as a one-party state ruled by a dictator. Again, the West reacted after realizing to what situation Ghana fell after the Independence . Criticised by western societies, Nkrumah began to work with communist countries such as principally the Soviet Union . At that time, Ghana ’s economics’ crisis has reached its climax: The country is out of control and the people keep getting poorer. The dictator is totally unpopular because of its previous actions against his people. The economy is out of control and the population is getting poorer. Nkrumah is no longer a popular leader as he hits hard on demonstrations and arrests anyone in opposition. The first coup On the 24thof February, 1966: A military takeover occurred in Ghana, it didn’t make any big losses as it was planned to happen while Nkrumah was away from the country visiting his friend President Sà ©kou Tourà © in Guinea. The military coup was realized by British-trained officers who had the ambition to stop the hard rule of Nkrumah and his government. Therefore, while the president was away every of its statues in Accra were taken down by the people. The new military government called itself the National Liberation Council (NLC). They declared that their intention was to fight off corruption and to make some change in the constitution so that Ghana could come back one more time to a democratic system. Unofficially, Britain was intervening in Ghana because of the orientation the country was undertaking during the last years of Nkrumah’s dictatorship towards the communist countries. Indeed, it was the cold war, the world was divided in two and the tentatives to attra ct countries to one side or the other weren’t rare; overall in these underdeveloped countries. As a consequence, the NLC’s council tended to be rather more conservative than socialist and therefore, it kept under a strict control all politicians and ideologues whether they were either socialists or communists. All connections to the Soviet Union were broken and technicians from USSR and China were expelled in order to get rid of any influences that could lead Ghana to communism. Ghanawas having his chance another time, to the eyes of the West, Ghana was taking a new way, a proper one to democracy and self-sustainability. After three years of provisional leading: The NLC legalized another time the participation of multiples political parties. Finally, new elections were announced for September 1969 which marked the beginning of the second republic. A new civilian government is created by Dr. Kofi Busia and the Progress Party. His party got a good start as the national economy regained strength thanks to the high prices on the cocoa market. Very quickly, prices drop again, the economic situation of Ghana go from bad to worst in 1971. Indeed, a political decision has been made to devaluate the Cedi which led to higher prices and to demonstrations, conflicts with violence by the population. In 1972, Kwame Nkrumah dies, despite his political failure, African masses still see in him a brave activist, the symbol of the struggle anti-colonialist and as the founder of Ghana . On the 13thof January, 1972: Once again a coup occurred, realized by forces of the army, for a change of government. This time, The National Redemption Council decided to impose a leader for Ghana . So, they chose Colonel Ignatius Acheampong to rule the state. However, the head of the state doesn’t have enough experience in any domains whether they are political or economical. A lack of vision from Acheampong led to a rise of corruption from the basis to the top of the society and the government. As a consequence, big strikes are organised by the youth in the country to claim their disappointment toward the critical situation the country was conducted. One year later, the economy was almost falling to pieces and no agreement could have been found with NRC-government.Acheampong took the initiative to put an end to the government and implemented the Supreme Military Council (SMC) constituted of a little group of seven persons chose by himself. The SMC ruled the country in a very roughly way: Any opposing to the regime was victim of multiples persecutions and even jailing without any sentence. On the 5thof July, 1978, Acheampong was in the obligation to resign while the general William Akuffo was taking the command of the â€Å"Supreme Military Council II†. He engaged himself to reform a civilian government, to allow for another time the political parties in Ghana . Finally he declared that he would set a date for new elections. Later on, on the 4thof June in 1979, after a first failed coup in the same year, Jerry John Rawlings a flight Lieutenant planned a takeover some days before the planned election. He was finally victorious, the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council achieved to take power. His ideas were principally inspired by socialism whether they are political or economical. His goal was to find an issue to corruption and the economical situation in which the country remained. Rawlings’ intention was to settle democratic elections but in a first time to stop the generals of the â€Å"Supreme Military Council II† from running away wealthy whereas they turned the country in chaos. Two weeks later, Dr. Hilla Limann leading the People’s National Party succeeded the election. As a result, the party got only 71 of the 140 seats in parliament making them a bit powerless to undertake decisions to free the country from the problems it faced until now. Rawlings understood that the PNP couldn’t rule properly Ghana as long as corruption, order and justice are not restored. In this sense, he strongly encouraged and helped the AFRC to put an end to all these problems before letting Ghana coming back to democracy. Finally, in the same year, thanks to the AFRC, all the persons linked to the SMC government and who were accused of corruption was tried. As a result: Hundreds of businessmen are sent to prison as well as government officials and the leader of this former government: Acheampong, Akuffo and Arifa were sentenced to death. The third republic In September 1979, the AFRC gives power to Hilla Limann. Rawlings and his soldiers came back to the army. Unfortunately, this news government didn’t help Ghana to solve its economical problems. During two years, the PNP have been trying but without any success: They haven’t been able to leave the country from the economic stagnation. Indeed, many economic reforms haven’t been applied or the government renounced to them in order to avoid a new takeover. Indeed, all economic changes proposed by the PNP’s government presented hard terms for Ghana ’s people but they were declared as necessary for the rise of the country. In 1980, the corruption came back and brought many violent conflicts in the country which put a definitive end to the PNP’s government. At the end of 1981, on the 31st of December. Rawlings took again the command of Ghana thanks to the military, he took over the country. He formed the Provisional National Defence Council of which he became the chairman. This time, Rawlings established that the country would be a one-party state for a temporary time, to make of Ghana a stable country and to ensure in the long-run a real democracy.

The Moor in the Works of William Shakespeare Essay -- Biography Biogra

The Sources and Representations of the Moor in the Works of Shakespeare      Ã‚  Ã‚   One theme consistently reemployed throughout Shakespeare's plays is that of the Other. The Other is usually characterized as a character that is somehow separated, stigmatized, or noted as being different from the mainstream ideal. For the Elizabethan England of Shakespeare's time, it may have been a self-defensive maneuver against the encroachment of something which threatened too close to home (Bartels 450). Bryant lists several methods used to employ this convention of the Other: race such as that of Shylock and Aaron, nationality as in Iachimo, bastardy such as the characters Don John and Edmund, social status such as that belonging to Iago, and deformity, for example, Richard III (35). Not every Other is characterized as evil, but nonetheless depicted as being somehow different or separated from society. Characters such as Malvolio, Faulconbridge, Macbeth, and Othello are of this subdivision.       One sect of Otherness is that of race. During this time, England seems at first glance to be separated culturally from any area of the Ottoman Empire. However, this assumption proves to be false. There are four characters in Shakespeare's plays, Caliban, Othello, the Prince of Morocco, and Aaron, who are of distinctly African, or Moorish heritage. Whether these persons were of Negro, Berber, Spanish, or Arab descent is definitely in question. The use of the term Moor also is of importance. This word is used to describe Aaron and Othello, but not to describe Caliban or the Prince of Morocco, both who come from areas classically referred to as being Moorish. The origin of the word Moor comes from the word mauri. Mauri refers to the Berbers w... ...ntic Review. 55.4 (1990): 1-17. Bryant, J.A. Jr. "Aaron and the Pattern of Shakespeare's Villains." Renaissance Papers. (1984): 29-36. Burshatin, Israel. "The Moor in Text: Metaphor, Emblem, and Silence." Critical Inquiry. 12.1 (1985): 98-118. D'Amico, Jack. The Moor in English Renaissance Drama. Tampa: University of South Florida Press, 1991. Everett, Barbara. " 'Spanish' Othello: The Making of Shakespeare's Moor." Shakespeare Survey. 35 (1982): 101-112. Jones, Eldred. The Elizabethan Image of Africa. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1971. Shakespeare, William. The Merchant of Venice. Ed. Kenneth Myrick. New York: Signet, 1965. ---. Othello. Ed. David Bevington. New York: Bantam Books, 1988. ---. The Tempest. Ed. Charles W. Eliot. New York: P.F. Collier & Sons, 1969. ---. Titus Andronicus. Ed. Sylvan Barnet. New York: Signet, 1964.

Film Festival Start Ups :: Movies Films Film Festivals Essays

Film Festival Start ups Silicon Valley fairly bursts with life and energy. Everywhere you look new companies, ideas and innovations are on the move and on the rise. Welcome to the land of start ups; small companies with a dream who survive and thrive by skill, luck and sheer tenacity. While the term usually describes high tech concepts, start-ups abound in the Valley - from the small catering company on the comer to the neighborhood printing shop down the street to the local film festival. Yes, that's right - film festival. The Local Scene "Film festival" usually conjures images of stretch limos, glittering starts and rabid paparazzi. Think Cannes or Sundance and you think big budgets, big egos and big-time Hollywood take over. Even smaller, more local festivals have the same overtones. Take the San Francisco International Film Festival. Champion of such "outsider" interests as gay rights, and American Indians long before those concepts became acceptable, SFIFF has mellowed with maturity. Called the "gray lady of local fests" by Dennis Harvey in Variety (June 30, 1997), the SFIFF continues to support international diversity, but with more of a prestigious, elitist atmosphere. The air, apparently, has become more rarified in San Francisco. The second largest film festival in the Bay Area, the Mill Valley Festival has a much more relaxed atmosphere. But, even within this atmosphere, some of the need for mainstream acceptance and money tends to bleed through. Start-ups seem to have two destinies - wonderful success or complete failure, with little middle ground. Other film festivals have ventured into the Silicon Valley before. Most of them had wonderful prospects - at the beginning. The Santa Cruz Festival, the San Jose Film Festival and the Monterey Film Festival, all showed great promise, and none made it to a third year. The Santa Cruz Festival ran from 1982 to 1985, and died of erratic handling. Part of the Santa Cruz charm is its dedication causes, its fierce independence and the feel that comes together with one word - Burkenstocks. Unfortunately, the wild, eccentric and fairly unorganized tendency that adds charm to the city killed the film festival. With wildly erratic programming that could confuse even dedicated fans and the death of festival found Les Goldman in 1986, the Santa Cruz Festival passed into the night. In 1984 San Jose made its stab at a festival. The Cinema of the Fantastic focused on science-fiction and fantasy in the beginning.

The Issue of Gun Control Legislation Essay -- Gun Control Weapons Laws

The Issue of Gun Control Legislation One of the most controversial issues in our society is gun control legislation. Violence associated with guns is increasing every year and something must be done to stop it. Gun legislation varies in every state. In some states gun policy is stricter than in other states. Gun legislation should be abolished in favor of federal gun legislation. To analyze the problem with gun violence today you must understand the gun laws that are in effect. The gun legislation in the United States are mostly based on a state level. One federal law for example, prohibits the manufacture of all plastic guns. The federal government tightly restricts fully automatic guns. Manufactures stamp serial numbers on guns for law purposes. The government also has regulation on importation on guns brought into the country. Also, most states restrict the purchasing of long guns under the age of 18, and 21 for the purchase of handguns Most states prohibit the purchase of guns if you are: a convicted felon, alcoholic, drug addict, mentally ill person, alien, or a fugitive from justice. Some laws required prospective gun buyers, to get a purchase permit, which comes with applicant passing all background checks. A few states even require that all persons possessing guns must have a license to do so, even in their homes. Some states don’t ban guns from addicts. This is a problem. Gun conciliation is not the same in each state. If it was same, it would have been easier to decrease the criminal acts. Guns are a form of power. Many individuals, ‘including criminals’ feel powerful when carrying a gun. Half of the households in the United States possess a gun. Criminals use guns for satisfaction. For example, to obtain sexual gratification in a rape or money in a robbery, or more frequently, to frighten and dominate victims in some other assault. All of these things can be gained without an attack, and indeed the possession of a gun can serve as a substitute for attack, rather than its vehicle (Kleck,1991). A sample was done by police in 50 major cities to see who is more common to use a gun (Kleck,1991). The data included that gun use in homicides is more common when (1) the victim is male rather than female, (2) the victim is male and the attacker is female, (3) ... ...le will have question like â€Å"how will I protect my self from criminals? Many people argue that guns in households scare away many criminals. Criminals take major risks when they attempt an armed attack. They also can achieve major benefits. The benefits consist of the potential economic or other gains, however conceived, from the contemplated crime; the costs include the possibility of being caught and imprisoned, of being shot at in the course of the crime, either by the police or by the victim. The likelihood of social disapproval could be a negative factor. It has been known that one half of every household has at least one gun. If you restrict a victim’s options by limiting household guns, crime could rise highly. This new policy on gun control should help lead our nation in the right direction. The massacre at the Empire State Building was an example of how our gun legislation must be changed. The new federal gun legislation will provide equality among all states. Criminals will not have the option of buying a gun in a state with weak gun legislation. This new policy on gun legislation will cut down on violence dramatically.

Is Elizabeth Bennet the ‘perfect heroine’? Essay

Jane Austen wrote in a letter that she found Elizabeth Bennet to be ‘as delightful a creature as ever appeared in print’. Is Elizabeth the ‘perfect heroine’? Look at her character and its development throughout the novel to account for her appeal. Elizabeth is the second of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet’s five daughters. She is her father’s â€Å"favorite child† because she has ‘something more of quickness than her sisters’. Despite this, in her mother’s eyes ‘she is not a bit better than the others†¦She is not half so handsome as Jane, nor so good humored as Lydia’. As the book is written mainly from Elizabeth’s point of view, we know little of her physical appearance. Darcy’s admiration of her fine eyes is a constant source of teasing for Caroline Bingley. â€Å"I am afraid†¦ that this adventure has rather affected your admiration of her fine eyes†. We are also told that ‘she was a reputed beauty’ in Hertfordshire and that Colonel Fitzwilliam admires Mrs. Collins’ ‘pretty young friend’. At the start of the book, Lizzy is described as having a ‘lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous’. She admits to finding diversion in ‘follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies’. Towards the end of the novel, she believes that: â€Å"by her ease and liveliness, his mind might have been softened† Her refusal to forgive Mr. Darcy after he has snubbed her at the ball shows her to be proud; â€Å"I could easily forgive his pride, if he had not mortified mine.† She is determined; â€Å"†. . Lizzy always speaks her mind, illustrating her ability to think for herself; â€Å"I am no longer surprised at your knowing only six accomplished women. I rather wonder now at you knowing any.† It this mixture of frankness, belief in her own opinions and playfulness; â€Å"Elizabeth’s spirits soon rising to playfulness again† that makes her such a real person and an independent young woman. She also knows how to use sarcasm; â€Å"Mr. Darcy is uncommonly kind to Mr. Bingley, and takes a prodigious deal of care of him.† Lizzy is very perceptive, having ‘quickness of observation’. When Darcy and Wickham first meet in Meryton, she notices ‘the countenance of both as they looked at each other’. This quickness also leads her to see through the attentions of the Bingley sisters; † they were in fact very fine ladies; not deficient in good humour when they were pleased, nor in the power of being agreeable when they chose it, but proud and conceited† Lizzy’s perceptiveness at the start of the book has a great bearing on the end because it sometimes leads her to judge too quickly and jump to conclusions. Her opinion of Wickham was ill founded and derived from this tendency; â€Å"His countenance, voice, and manner, had established him at once in the possession of every virtue.† Elizabeth’s opinion of Wickham was also influenced by her prejudice against Mr. Darcy. When Wickham fails to attend the ball at Netherfield, Elizabeth immediately attributes this to â€Å"his being purposely omitted for Mr. Darcy’s pleasure in the Bingley’s invitation†. On hearing a different reason for his absence, and at a suggestion from Denny; â€Å"It assured her that Darcy was not less answerable than if her first surmise had been just†. It isn’t until this ball scene that we see the full extent of Lizzy’s prejudice against Darcy. She declares that â€Å"Attention, forbearence, patience with Darcy was injury to Wickham†. In a conversation with Charlotte Lucas, Lizzy exclaims; â€Å"To find a man agreeable whom one is determined to hate!† This quote is very significant as it shows that no matter what Darcy did, Lizzy would be prejudiced against him. Evidently Lizzy’s prejudice has overcome her common sense. This is a highly uncommon characteristic for an author to bestow on her heroine, for it shows very clearly that this is a real girl and by no means a model young lady as most heroines are. While dancing with Darcy at Netherfield, Lizzy ventures to say; â€Å"It is particularly incumbent on those who never change their opinion, to be sure of judging properly at first† This later proves to be ironic, as it is she, not Darcy who had jumped to conclusions therefore, proving that she had judged incorrectly at first. Once Elizabeth has an opinion of a person, it takes a lot to change it. She only achieves this after receiving the letter from Darcy. Despite her faults, Lizzy is not afraid to admit them and own that she was wrong; â€Å"She grew absolutely ashamed of herself. Of neither Darcy nor Wickham could she think without feeling that she had been blind, partial, prejudiced, absurd.† As well as being able to admit her mistakes, Lizzy has great honesty of mind. She has great self-belief but doesn’t try and delude herself; â€Å"The justice of the charge struck her too forcibly for denial†. As well as being honest with her self, she is honest with other people; â€Å"You know enough of my frankness to believe me capable of that† Throughout most of the book, Lizzy is prejudiced. This is where the ‘prejudice’ in the title stems from; â€Å"with a strong prejudice against anything he might say† And â€Å"to find a man agreeable, who one is determined to hate†. It is not until she reads Darcy’s letter that Lizzy realises her error. She blames her prejudice on the fact that she was ‘offended by the neglect of the other’ (meaning Darcy). It is clear by the end of the book, that she has learnt her lesson and will think before forming opinions about people in the future; â€Å"We have both reason to think my opinions not entirely unalterable†. Elizabeth has a reality about her, which is strong enough to make you believe that this person could have actually lived. She is not perfect and makes the same mistakes that anyone could, but learns from them at the same time. I think it is this and that she is such a model for the feminists of today that makes her such a charmingly different romantic heroine. It is that she is so unlike the majority of romantic heroines that must be held accountable for her appeal. It is the fact that she isn’t a perfect person, she is only the second prettiest in the Bennet family, which makes her so different from many of the stereotypical heroines, who are calm, passive, quiet, peaceful and vulnerable. She has survived time and, although set in the early eighteenth century, she gives you the feeling that as a person, Elizabeth Bennet would be just as at home in the year 2000. She is full of energy, witty, confident and independently minded, making her an ideal for modern femininity. â€Å"we have both reason to think my opinions not entirely unalterably†. â€Å"that I had not been so weak and vain and nonsensical as I knew I had!†. This again illustrates her hypocrisy as she had teased Mr. Darcy at the start of the book for having ‘vanity and pride’; here she admitted that she herself had been vain This quote also illustrates her devotion to ‘a most beloved sister’, Jane

Quantification of Proteins in Solution by Spectrophotometer Essay

Introduction: Absorption spectroscopy is a common method for finding the concentration of proteins or protein complexes in a solution. Proteins absorb light at specific wavelengths and can be defined by the equation A = log (Io/I). This equation states that an absorbance at a specific wavelength, A is equal to the log of the ratio of incident light intensity (Io), to transmitted light intensity (I). A spectrophotometer can be used quantitatively and qualitatively. A spectrophotometer is used qualitatively to obtain an absorption spectrum, which can be obtained by plotting the absorbance values, over the range of wavelengths tested for the solution. This helps to find out the suitable wavelength that the compound absorbs maximum. And the spectrophotometer is used quantitatively by using the Beer-Lambert Law; Log [ Io/I] = A = ÃŽ ¾cl, where ÃŽ ¾ is the molar extinction coefficient (unit = Lmol-1cm-1), helps to define the absorbance of the protein, c is the concentration of the substance (mol liter-1), and l is the path length of the light (unit = cm) through the medium. Log [Io/I] is called optical density or absorbance of the substance, and does not have units. Also, an absorption spectrum is created, which deals with absorption and wavelength (nm) of light used, with which â€Å"maximum absorption† is observed. Maximum absorption is when most of the solution particles are absorbed, and this happens at a specific wavelength. Since the Beer Lambert law is useful only for a range of wavelengths, it is not applicable to all protein solutions. In this experiment, an absolute standard was calculated using BSA, so that the concentrations of the other unknown protein solutions can be determined (Lambert et.al, 2011).The different assays used for this protein quantification were Lowry, Bradford (Coomassie Blue) and UV direct. Protein assays help to determine the amount of desired particle present (Srivastava, 2008). The aim of this lab is to understand the various aspects of spectrophotometry and its applications in biochemistry, such as quanitification of protein solutions. Methods: (Carleton University, 2012) The steps were followed without any changes made. Results: Figure1. Absorption spectrum of 6Ãâ€"10-5M p-np solution in 0.02M NaOH, for wavelength range between 330-800nm using a Novaspec spectrophotometer. Sample Calculation: c = 6Ãâ€"10-5M l = 1cm A = 1.166 The Beer Lambert equation is A = Æ cl Rearranged, Æ  = A/cl Æ  = 1.166/(6Ãâ€"10-5)*1 Æ  = 1.94Ãâ€"104 L mol-1 cm-1 Table1. Values of extinction coefficient (Lmol-1cm-1) determined using Beer-Lambert Law. Figure2. Absolute standard curve obtained for BSA test protein solution with the 3 different assays tested (Lowry, Coomassie Blue, UV). Table 2. Absorbance values recorded for different protein dilutions (2X, 5X, 10X) for the three assays used, namely Lowry, Coomassie Blue and UV direct. Sample Calculation for BSA stock protein: * Lowry Equation of line from Fig2; y = -5Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.0016x + 0.038 For 5 fold; y = 5 * 0.44 = 2.20 Substituting in equation; 2.20 = 5Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.0016x + 0.038 X1 = 1600  µg/ml = 1.6mg/ml For 10 fold; y = 10 * 0.23 = 2.30 Substituting in equation; 2.30 = 5Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.0016x + 0.038 X2 = 1600  µg/ml = 1.6mg/ml (X1 + x2)/2 = 1.6mg/ml * Coomassie Blue Equation of line from fig2; y = -7Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.002x + 0.0219 For 5 fold; y = 5 * 0.36 = 1.80 Substituting in equation; 1.80 = -7Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.002x + 0.0219 X1 = 1428.57  µg/ml = 1.4mg/ml For 10 fold; y = 10 * 0.20 = 2.00 Substituting in equation; 2.00 = -7Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.002x + 0.0219 X2 = 1428.57  µg/ml = 1.4mg/ml (x1+ x2)/2 = 1.4mg/ml * UV direct Equation of line from fig 2; y = 0.0006x + 0.0175 For 2 fold; y = 2 * 0.42 = 0.84 Substituting in equation; 0.84 = 0.0006x + 0.0175 X1 = 1374.16  µg/ml = 1.4mg/ml For 5 fold; y = 5 * 0.15 = 0.75 Substituting in equation; 0.75 = 0.0006x + 0.0175 X2 = 1179.16  µg/ml = 1.2mg/ml (x1 + x2)/2 = 1.3mg/ml Discussion: Figure 1 shows the absorption spectrum of stock solution (6Ãâ€"10-5M), p-nitrophenol and 0.02M NaOH, and from the graph it can be inferred that 400nm is the wavelength of maximum absorption because absorption is noted to be the highest at this point. Absorbance is noted to increase when wavelength increases till it reaches the point of maximum absorption, after which it decreases till it nearly reaches zero. It is best to consider wavelength of maximum absorption because stronger the intensity, the more accurate will be the readings for absorbance. As seen from table 1, the path lengths remain the same as the cuvettes used were of the same size. The Beer-Lambert Law states that Abs = Æ .c.l, where Æ  = molar extinction coefficient, c = concentration of protein solution, and l = path length of light through medium. Thus, it is noted that absorbance and path length share a directly proportional relationship, i.e. if path length increases, absorbance increases as well. It was clear ly observed in the wide and narrow test-tubes, that as the path length was doubled, the absorbance value doubled too (Srivastava, 2008). Also, from the same equation, it can be determined that absorbance and concentration share a directly proportional relationship meaning that as the concentration decreases, it directly affects the absorbance value obtained, and this value decreases too. Thus, as seen for the four cuvettes tested (in Table 1) as the concentration is halved in every cuvette, the absorbance value is halved correspondingly as well. It is known that the Beer-Lambert law says absorbance is proportional to number of absorbing molecules, and that this is valid for a variety of compounds over a wide range of concentrations. But even as the molar extinction coefficient is seen to be attributed to wavelength, it is true only for monochromatic light (Lambert et.al, 2011). The relationship can be stated as â€Å"Æ  is a measure of the amount of light absorbed per unit concentration†. Molar extinction coefficient is a constant for a particular substance, therefore according to the Beer-Lambert Law it is expected that if the concentration of the solution is halved so is the absorbance. A compound with a high molar extinction is very effective at absorbing light (of the appropriate wavelength), and hence low concentrations of a compound with a high molar extinction can be easily detected. In the values determined (Table 1), the experimental values are in accordance with the theoretical statement except for one cuvette. The cuvette no.3 with Æ  = 1.8Ãâ€"10-4 L mol-1cm-1 does not agree with the trend. Thus it can be deduced that due to experimental error, the Æ  value is inaccurate. Also, from the equation it is understood that Æ  and path-length are inversely proportional as well (i.e. Æ  = Abs/cl) that means that as path-length increases, Æ  decreases, assuming that the concentration is kept constant. But the experimental values do not agree with this statement, because it is seen that as the path-length increases so does the molar extinction coefficient, Æ . Biochemical methods are applied for to determine protein concentration in solutions. Many techniques are less used because they have limitations such as reduced sensitivity, time available for the assay, or they are highly specific about the amino acids in the protein solution being tested. But for e very protein, the component amino acids are different, so there is no single assay that can be used for quantification of all proteins. The absorbance assays use the method of testing the intensity of the color produced by the protein solutions when chemical reagents are added to it. A â€Å"standard protein† whose concentration is known, is treated using the same chemical reagents and thus an absolute standard curve is obtained (Boyer, 2000). In this experiment, the standard used was Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). Development of color is significantly better in BSA than any other protein, and this makes it one of the most preferred test solutions for quantification of proteins (Antharavally et.al, 2008). Hence figure 2 is obtained by performing the three suitable assays on BSA to produce a standard curve, also it can be noted that only the UV direct gave a straight line passing through zero, whereas the Lowry and Coomassie Blue gave curved lines, passing through zero. Table 2 shows the absorbance values recorded, for different dilutions of the test protein in three different assays. With the help of the values obtained in Table 2, and with the equations obtained from Figure 2, the concentration of protein (mg/ml) was calculated and presented in Table 3. Since all the values in Table 3 were deduced from the equation of standard curve BSA, it is considered as the absolute standard, and the other test protein solutions are known as the relative standards. Using the values from Table 3, taking BSA as the absolute standard, the almost actual concentration of the protein (mg/ml) can be concluded, and they are 1.6 (mg/ml) for Lowry assay, 1.4 (mg/ml) for Coomassie Blue and 1.3 (mg/ml) for UV direct. For Lowry assay, the concentration value for all test proteins was 1.6 mg/ml, which must mean that the value obtained is accurate. For Coomassie blue, BSA and Hemoglobin were the same (1.4mg/ml), Ovalbumin and Lysozyme had similar values of 1.9mg/ml, and 1.8mg/ml respectively, whereas Gamma globulin showed 2.5mg/ml. The value for Gamma globulin is off because of experimental error, of spilling some of the contents from the cuvette while transferring it to the spectrophotometer for calibration. For UV direct, BSA and Ovalbumin have similar readings (1.3mg/ml and 1.5mg/ml respectively), Gamma globulin is 2.5mg/ml, but Lysozyme is 5.9mg/ml and Hemoglobin is 3.8mg/ml. The reason for this could be due to the fact that UV direct helps to identify the presence of aromatic compounds indicating that Lysozyme and Hemoglobin contain aromatic compounds present in them. The Lowry protein assay is the most common and one of the more sensitive, but it is time consuming, on the other hand Coomassie blue (the Bradford assay) is much more sensitive as compared to Lowry, and requires less time too. They both show change of color with proteins. As for UV direct method, it is one of the faster methods too, and it is helpful to identify aromatic compounds because aromatic residues absorb 280nm light (Boyer, 2000). The Lowry procedure can detect protein levels as low as 5 µg (Boyer, 2000). It depends on the color development by the reagent Folin-Ciocalteu. Peptide bonds are formed under alkaline Cu2+ conditions and reduced from Folin-Ciocalteu phosphomolybdate-phosphotungsten by aromatic amino acids (tyrosine and tryptophan) to heteropolymolybdenum blue. The standard curve obtained with BSA helps to determine concentration of unknown protein solutions (Antharapally et.al, 2008). In the case of Coomassie blue, it is more efficient than Lowry because even though there is variation with different proteins, there is very less interference by non protein components (Borley, 2000). Therefore, according to literature, Coomassie Blue is the most preferred protein assay but this contrasts the experimental inferences, because through experimental procedure it was seen that Lowry method gave the most accurate and precise results. With this experiment, the method to quantify unknown protein concentrations has been understood. Also, that this process must be performed carefully to avoid irrational experimental errors. References: Antharavally B.S, Bell P.A, Haney P, Mallia K.A, Rangaraj P. 2008. Quantitation of proteins using a dye–metal-based colorimetric protein assay. Analytical Biochemistry. 385; 342-245. Boyer R, 2000. Modern Experimental Biochemistry, third edition. Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc. USA. (41-45). Lambert J.B, Gronert S, Lightner D.A, Shurvell H.F, 2011. Organic Structural Spectroscopy, second edition. Pearson Education, Inc, New Jersey. (401, 404) Srivastava M.L, 2008. Bioanalytical Techniques. Alpha Science International, Ltd. Oxford, UK. (58,118)

Frei Otto Munich Stadium

MUNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM//FREI OTTO//1972 gizem akgun/ nuria juanbaro sarret/kanaka raghavan _ADDA 2012-2013 GERMAN PAVILION// MONTREAL//1967//cable nets TUWAIQ PALACE//SAUDI ARABIA//1970// cable nets OLYMPIC STADIUM//MUNICH//1972// cable nets ORKS MULTIHALLE MANNHIEM //GERMANY//1975// grid shells JAPAN PAVILION EXPO 2000//HANOVER GERMANY//2000//grid shell German architect and research engineer 1957 // Development Center for Lightweight Construc on in Berlin. 1964// Ins tute for Lightweight Structures in Stu gart.Exhibited a special gi for crea ng lightweight tent structures Computer-based procedure for determining their shape and behaviour Alterna ve system of grid shell structures HE ARCHITECT /FREI OTTO HE LIGHTWEIGHT PRINCIPLE/tensile Tensile roofs/ every part of the structure is loaded in tension with no requirement to resist compression Cable nets/ grid of structural cables in tension forming the framework supports a weather shield. An clas c Surfaces/ tension forces are in equil ibrium, the centres of curvature are in opposite side of the membrane Synclas c Surfaces/ the centres of curvature are on the same side of the membrane n clas c curve hyper paraboloid hyper paraboloid/ minimum 4 pts with alteast 1 pt out of plane Less material and e? ort Remarkably large spans Combined tensile structure and biological research Only a few members,are under compression while all others, for instance, cables and membranes, are under tension For tension and rigidity, an clas c or saddle-like curvatures HE LIGHTWEIGHT PRINCIPLE UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /details SITE// Originally the se ng of a 1930’s air? eld,former training ground for the Bavarian Royal Army and the site of Munich’s ? rst civil airport. Ground had been used as a dump yard for ruined buildings’ rubble. 00m tall broadcast tower, s ll present today, a major landmark of the site. PROGRAM// 80,000 seats Smaller enclosed sports hall Swimming hall Warm-up arena Enclosed workout facility Housi ng for 3000 people UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /1972 Gunter Behnisch proposed light and open structures con nuous ? uid tent roo? ng resembling natural hills Frei O o’s Montreal Pavilion was the guiding piece The original system came from model studies where ladies stockings were used to simulate the tent’s surfaces al proposal CRITICAL STUDIES// Mast heights gave ghter curvature near the masts and leave the unsa sfactory ? t perimeter areas unimproved Increasing the pre-stress to ? at areas would provide the necessary stability, but only at impossibly high levels of tensioning UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM/ini Winner of the compe on for 1972 olympic park by GUNTER BEHNISCH ERMAN PAVILLION,MONTREAL/1967 Real masterpiece of lightweight architecture,Frei O l/Behnisch Ini al mode o UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /comparisons UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /inspira Dragon? y wings are one three-thousandth of a millimeter thick Up to 1,000 sec ons Compartmental structure, wings do not tear, withstand the pressure that forms during ? ght. Driving principle for design of roof on 7 saddle-shape cable nets Square meshes that form rhomboids to assume an clas c curvature UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /revised roof Subdivide roof into a patchwork of separate but coupled smaller canopies Support at many points and mostly curved to suitably ght radii. Nets do not extend to the tops of medium height masts, instead hung from very tall masts Masts placed outside the roof or suspended above ground on cables keeping the areas below column-free Roo? ng for the main sports facili esUNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /experiments 1:125 scale models exactly proportional both in geometry and in elasticity to the envisaged full sized structures UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /structure Interior cables Peripheral cables Cable joints Steel masts Concrete underground founda on Acrylic panel cover UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /cables Interior cables//11. 7 mm mesh, 19 heavily galvanised 2. 3- and 3. 3mm steel wires A lay length of 10 x the la y diameter Main cables//? ve strands of 37 and 109 wires each Edge cables//vary in speci? a on, typical example ,lockedsurface wire rope of 81 millimetres diameter Twin cables with concentric joints assume square meshes forming rhomboids forming an clas c curves UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /joints Cables arranged in pairs 75Ãâ€"75 cm mesh,reduced number of joints Clamps+screw,one bolt per joint,easy construc on 75 cm mesh Saddle connec ons Swaged clamp connec on Erec on/The cable nets completely assembled on ground, li ed to ? nal posi ons. Prestressing/suspension cables were put in posi on, geometry and stresses cables and masts checked Connec on to anchor UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /mastsTension founda ons / anchor the main cables down to earth Inclined slot founda ons (tent pegs ),gravity anchor founda ons (anchoring from self weight),earth anchor founda ons (support the masts) Temporary steel balls provided under the rubber pads to allow rota on during assembly Cylindrical masts welded st eel tubes up to 80 metres long and with a 50mN (5000 ton) load capacity. Transparent roof covering/ 2. 9 x 2. 9-metre acrylic panels , 4mm thk Bolted to the intersec on nodes and angles of intersec on change every 6 degrees Temperature moulding, panels on neoprene pedestals, allowing them to ‘? at’, and sealing the joints with con nuous neoprene pro? le clamped to the panel edges Discon nuous joints allowing movement UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /cover UNICH OLYMPIC STADIUM /conclusions Form ? nding experiments/solu ons for large spans simultaneously gave birth to the science of compu ng . Final form depends on – shape of grid,spacing,pa ern -the geometry of the suppor ng structure – the pretension applied to the cable net and its suppor ng structure Advantages/E? cient way of using material Lightweight Large spans Quick construc on